Population Geography of Mainland Hispanic America: Inventory of the 1980s
Alfonso González
Department of Geography
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
ABSTRACT
Rapid population growth in Latin America continued during the 1980s, although the rate has continued to decline since the 1960s. During all this time when the rate was declining the absolute annual increase of population continued to expand and it did so during the 1980s. This will cease probably within the next few years although impressive population growth will continue well into the next century. The agricultural population is now only about a quarter of the total and its absolute growth should stop shortly. The urban population is now about 70 percent and few countries remain primarily rural. Latin America remains the most highly urbanized and least agricultural region of the underdeveloped world. Although the traditional areas of settlement are expanding more slowly in population, the "empty areas" are generally increasing rapidly.
The publications on population included in this study pertain to Latin America overall and to the
countries of mainland Hispanic America. Urbanization studies of mainland Middle America are
excluded because they are covered elsewhere in this conference. The bibliography is divided into
10 topics or themes. Each topic/theme is subdivided into general studies and to those pertaining to
individual countries (or a small group of countries). There are a total of 56 general studies (scattered
among nine of the topic/theme categories) and 141 country studies. The latter are almost evenly
divided between mainland Middle America and Hispanic South America. The most extensive studies
pertain to urbanization and also to migration. General/Overview studies are also rather large
followed by agricultural colonization, historical and development/resources/food studies. Somewhat
less numerous are population characteristics studies with the smallest number of entries pertain to
ethnic, distribution/settlement and, especially, political studies. Mexico accounts for more than a
quarter of all the individual country studies while the next most numerous studies deal with Bolivia,
Peru and Argentina. Considering present-day circumstances an area of some neglect would appear
the study of the relationship of population to ecological changes and problems and the general neglect
by geographers of distribution studies, other than those of migration.
LATIN AMERICAN POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS IN THE 1980s
During the 1980s the population of Latin America increased from approximately 360 to 447 million.(1) The rate of
population growth at the beginning of the decade was about 2.6 percent annually but decreased to about 2.1 percent
by 1990. The pattern of a declining population rate of growth goes back at least to the early 1960s. The Orient is
the only other underdeveloped region that began to decline at about the same time or slightly later. Latin America
had the world's fastest rate of population growth until probably the late 1960s when the Middle East attained and
then surpassed Latin America. At approximately the same time, or soon thereafter, Sub-Saharan Africa also
surpassed Latin America's population growth rate.
Virtually all the countries of Latin America reduced their rate of population growth during the 1980s, except
that Trinidad-Tobago, Bolivia and especially, Chile showed some marginal increases. In addition, no significant
changes in the growth rate occurred in Guatemala, Panama and Cuba.
The absolute annual increase for Latin America has continued to grow from approximately 5.4 million in
the 1950s to about eight million in 1980 and now is slightly less than nine million. The annual absolute population
increment is probably about to cease growing perhaps within the next few years. The Orient's annual absolute
growth began to decrease probably in the late 1970s and is the only underdeveloped region to have done so. Latin
America's population growth is projected to continue well into the next century with an expected population of 535
million at the end of the century (only a decade from now) and 705 million by 2020.
Among the Latin American countries Argentina alone shows a decreasing addition to its population growth
every year. Nine other countries, all small, appear to have annual additions that are no longer expanding
significantly. The reason for the decline of Latin America's population growth rate is the continuing reduction of fertility.
Although mortality overall has declined only marginally during the 1980s (despite a significant decline in infant
mortality), fertility has dropped significantly. The most marked declines in the crude birth rate during the 1980s
occurred in Brasil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru and Honduras. No change or a slight increase occurred in Cuba,
Trinidad-Tobago and Chile. During the decade the total fertility rate (average number of children born to each
woman during her lifetime) was reduced by one child to a total of 3.5 children at present. At the same time life
expectancy has been increased by about three years. The rapid process of urbanization continues as the urban population increased from 61 to 69 percent of the
total regional population during the 1980s. In 1990 the only countries that remain less than 50 percent urban are
those of Central America (except Nicaragua, Panama and Belize), Haiti, Paraguay and Guyana. The agricultural population now accounts for only slightly more than a quarter of the total population and
it should cease growing altogether in the next few years. Haiti, Honduras and Guatemala are the only countries that
remain more than 50 percent agricultural while Mexico and Peru are the only major Latin American countries where
the agricultural population continues to expand. Latin America remains the only highly urbanized underdeveloped
region and, by far, the least agricultural. The traditional areas of settlement (the Antilles, Middle Chile, the La
Plata-Parana Basin, the Cordilleran and Brazilian Highlands) have been increasing at relatively slow rates, or very
slowly in the case of the Antilles. These regions still account for more than four-fifths of Latin America's total
population and occupy approximately one-half of the total area. The relatively "empty areas" have been growing
rather rapidly in population, except for South Chile and the Guiana Highlands. Amazonia and the region of
Northwest Argentina and Patagonia have had an especially pronounced rapid population growth during the 1980s. During the period 1980-87 (the period of the 1980s for which comparable data are available) the growth
of population, among other factors, has resulted in a continued rapid expansion of land under cultivation. Latin
America continues to expand its cropland faster than any other underdeveloped (or advanced) region but the rate
(both relative and absolute) of expansion during the 1980s is considerably below that of the 1970s. This may be due
to the slowing down of overall population growth and especially that of the agricultural population or to increasing
agricultural yields, but it may also indicate that desirable and accessible arable land may be in short supply. All the
large countries of the region, except Bolivia and Chile, had large increases in cultivated area during the 1980s, with
Brasil accounting for three-fourths of the total regional increase, but some small countries, viz., Cuba, Guatemala
and especially, Paraguay, had very substantial expansions of cropland. During the 1980s, in contrast to the 1970s,
the expansion of pasture land was greater than that of cropland and greater than the increase during the previous
decade. The most impressive expansion of pastures during the 1980s occurred in Brasil, Paraguay and Colombia.
The penalty for these increases has been paid for by the very rapid and increasing deforestation. Although Latin
America has the largest forest area, both relatively and absolutely, and the largest forested area per capita of any
world region, the rate of deforestation, both relatively and absolutely, is also the greatest. During the 1970s an area
the size of Costa Rica was deforested annually in Latin America and during the 1980s that area was increased by
one-fifth. Brasil accounts for more than a third of the loss of forested area. Large losses also occur in most of the
other tropical South American countries and Mexico. In contrast, Cuba and Uruguay actually increased their
forested areas during the 1980s. POPULATION LITERATURE IN THE 1980s.(2)
The literature pertaining to population in Latin America that was published during the 1980s is quite extensive. The
appended bibliography is certainly not complete nor attempts to be definitive.(3) It can, however, be considered
representative of the nature of the publications that have been issued over the past decade. The population studies
have been divided into 10 topics or themes and within each topic/theme are listed the general studies followed by
studies of individual countries (or sometimes small groups of countries). There are a total of 56 general entries listed
and 141 entries for individual countries. The latter are divided almost evenly between the countries of mainland
Middle America and Hispanic South America. 1. General/Overview. These studies deal with the demographic situation, population changes and trends,
population growth and pressures and demographic policies and politics (including immigration policies). This
comprises one of the largest group in the study with five general studies and 20 entries dealing with individual [end p. 100]
countries or a small group of countries. Mexico has, by far, the largest number of entries, as is the case in most
other topic/theme headings. 2. Historical. Population studies dealing with past population conditions is also one of the larger groups.
There are five general studies and 15 country entries. Again, Mexico has the greatest number of country
publications but there are more entries from South America than in the previous topic/theme. 3. Population Characteristics. These studies deal with fertility, mortality (including infant mortality),
family planning and contraception, and the age structure. There are two general studies, dealing with contraception
and mortality, and 14 country entries. Half of the latter deal with Mexico and only three focus on South American
countries. 4. Development/Resources/Food. A rather broad category that is also one of the larger in terms of entries.
The studies deal with population or population change and the economy or economic development, the problem of
resource depletion, deforestation or ecological effects, agriculture, land tenure and development, the food
supply/production/nutrition problems and poverty. There are 11 general studies (the second largest among the 10
topics/themes) and eight country studies, with all of them pertaining to Mexico and four of the countries of Central
America. 5. Distribution and Settlement. These studies focus on the distribution of population, the settlement
patterns and settlement and distribution policies. Although one would expect geographers to concentrate or at least
devote considerable attention to this theme, this group is one of the smaller of the categories. There are five general
studies and only five entries pertaining to three individual countries (Mexico with three and Costa Rica and
Argentina). 6. Agricultural Colonization. This comprises one of the larger categories of entries and pertains to the
processes, problems and policies of agricultural colonization projects as well as to spontaneous settlements.
Although there is only one general study, pertaining to health problems in agricultural colonization, there are 20
individual country studies. In this topic there isn't a single entry listed for Mexico and only one for any Central
American country (Costa Rica). The great focus is on South America, especially the expansion toward the interior
of the continent. 7. Political. By far the smallest category of entries focuses on the demographic aspects of unrest and
conflict and on United States security considerations. There are two general studies dealing with those subjects and
three country studies and they all deal with Central America. 8. Ethnicity. A relatively small group of entries (only 11) with a focus on minorities, including
Amerindians, and also on refugees. There are no general studies on this theme and the country studies are broadly
scattered. 9. Migration. This is the second largest group of entries and the studies pertain to internal migration and
the rural exodus, immigration and undocumented or illegal migration. There are four general studies and 28
individual country studies. Mexico has a dozen entries, and the remainder are broadly scattered with no other
country having more than three. 10. Urbanization. This category excludes studies devoted to mainland Middle America as previously noted.
Despite this, more entries are listed under urbanization than any other topic/theme. There are 21 general studies (as
many or more than the total for nearly all the other categories) and 17 individual country studies. Chile has, by far,
the largest number of country entries. The scope of population studies by geographers and/or of interest to geographers on Latin America is
extremely broad and the volume is impressive. Many facets of the relationship of population to other factors or
themes is explored. Urbanization and migration appear to receive the greatest attention but important topics such
as the relationship of population to development, resources and food supply are receiving some attention. The effect
of population growth on ecological change appears to be somewhat neglected, at least in the professional literature.
Population growth and pressure on deforestation would appear to warrant more attention that it has been receiving.
It would also appear that geographers would have a distinct advantage in furthering the study, more than they do
in migration studies, of the distributional aspects of population. Mexico accounts for more than a quarter of all the
individual country studies while the next most numerous studies deal with Bolivia, Peru and Argentina. Some
countries also appear to be somewhat neglected; viz., Panama and Honduras in Central America and Colombia and
Uruguay in South America. Notes 1. Population figures are based on data from various editions of the World Population Data Sheet (Washington, DC:
Population Reference Bureau, Inc.), Demographic Yearbook (New York: United Nations), and the FAO Production
Yearbook (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).
2. The literature included in this study pertains to Latin America overall and for the countries of mainland Hispanic America. Since urbanization in Mexico and Central America is included elsewhere, it is not included in this study.
3. More than three pages of entries have been deleted in order to provide a slightly more concise bibliography. Virtually all of the entries deleted were general in nature; i.e., pertained to Latin America overall or included Latin America as part of the 3rd World.
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Agricultural Colonization
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Fifer, J.V. 1982. Search for a series of small successes: Frontiers of settlement in eastern Bolivia. Journal of Latin American Studies 14:407-432.
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Nickson, R.A. 1981. Brazilian colonization of the eastern border region of Paraguay. Journal of Latin American Studies 13(1):111-131.
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Population and Politics
Diaz-Briquets, Sergio. 1986. Conflict in Central America: The demographic dimension. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.
Saunders, John. 1986. Population growth in Latin America and U.S. national security. Winchester, MA: Allen and Unwin. Population Growth in Latin America and U.S. National Security, 1985.
Thomas, Robert N. and Don R. Hoy. 1988. A demographic perspective to El Salvador's internal struggle. In Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers: Yearbook 1988. Ed. by Tom L. Martinson, A. Richard Longwell, and William M. Denevan, 38-42. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.
U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs. 1984. Implications of population trends for U.S. foreign policy in Central America: briefing.
Wiarda, Howard J. and Ieda Siqueria. 1985. Latin America: Population and internal unrest. Draper Fund Report. September 1985:20-24.
Ethnic Groups/Refugees
Crowley, William K. 1984. The Palestinian community in Honduras. In Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, Yearbook 1984. Ed. by Katherine M. Kvale, 35-47. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.
Davidson, William V. 1984. Geography of minority populations in Central America. In Latin America: Case Studies. Ed. by Richard G. Boehm and Sent Visser, 31-37. Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
Early, J.D. 1980. Ethnography as an interpreter of national censuses: The Guatemalan case. Journal of Anthropological Research 36:71-86.
Forrest, L. 1984. A patchwork of people. Geographical Magazine 56:82-89.
Fuentes, Aguilar, L. 1988. Assistance services for refugees at the south frontier of Mexico. Geographia Medica 18:47-62.
Gardiner, Harvey. 1981. Pawns in a Triangle of Hate, The Peruvian Japanese and the U.S. University of Washington Press.
[end p. 105]Herlihy, Peter H. 1985. Settlement and subsistence change among the Choco Indians of Darien Province, Eastern Panama: An overview. In Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, Yearbook 1985. Ed. by Lydia M. Pulsipher, 11-16, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.
Lausent Herrera, I. 1986. Los immigrantes chinos en la amazonia peruana. Bulletin-Institut Francais des Etudes Andines 15 (4):49-60.
Scott, A. 1985. Paraguay's wandering Germans. Geography Magazine 57:126-127.
Tigner, J.L. 1982. Japanese settlement in eastern Bolivia and Brazil (review article). Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 24:496-517.
Torres de Arauz, Reinal. 1980. Panamá Indigena. Panama: Instituto Nacional de Cultura Patrimonio Histórico.
Migration
Aragón, Luis E. 1985. A rationale for the Use of family networks to gather migration data in Latin America. In Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, Yearbook 1985. Ed. by Lydia M. Pulsipher, 39-44. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.
__________. 1983. El Problema migratorio en la Pan-amazonia: una aproximación teórica y una alternativa metodológica. Revista Geográfica 97:44-55.
Brea, Jorge A., Lawrence A. Brown, and Daniel Wagner. 1985. Circulation and migration in Third World settings: A comparison in Ecuador. Revista Geográfica 101:97-114.
Bustamente, J.A. 1988. Mexican migration to the U.S.: Defacto rules. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 5(3):225-236.
Carvajal A., Guillermo. 1983. Les migrations interieures a Costa Rica: Une approche regionales au probleme. Revista Geográfica 98:91-114.
Chiswick, B.R. 1986. Mexican immigrants: The economic dimension. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 487:92-101.
Cole, J. 1989. Internal migration in Peru. Geography Review 3(1):25-31.
DeMarco, G. and S.M. Sassone. 1983. Movilidad geográfica de los immigrantes limitrofes. Su impacto en la frontera argentina. Buenos Aires: Oikos.
Diaz-Briquets, Sergio. 1983. International migration within Latin America and the Caribbean: An overview. New York: Center for Migration Studies.
Everitt, J.C. 1984. The recent migrations of Belize, Central America. International Migration Review 18:319-325.
Gutierrez, Phillip R. 1983. Channelization of Mexican nationals to the San Luis Valley of Colorado. In Contemporary Issues in Latin American Geography. Ed. by Barry Lentnek, 69-83. Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers 9.
Jones, R.C. and Brown, L.A. 1985. Cross-national tests of a third world development-migration paradigm: With particular attention to Venezuela. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 19(5): 357-361.
Jones, R.C. 1989. Causes of Savadoran migration to the U.S. Geographical Review 79 (2): 183-194.
__________. 1988. Micro source regions of Mexican undocumented migration. National Geographic Research 4(1):11-22.
__________. 1982a. Undocumented migration from Mexico: Some geographical questions. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 72:77-87.
__________. 1982b. Channelization of undocumented Mexican migrants to the U.S. Economic Geography 58:156-176.
__________. 1983. Recent patterns of undocumented migration from Mexico to South Texas. In Contemporary Issues in Latin American Geography. Ed. by Barry Lentnek, 84-98. Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers 9.
Massey, D.S. 1987. Understanding Mexican migration to the U.S. American Journal of Sociology 92(6):119-133.
Mata, F.G. 1985. Latin American immigration to Canada: Some reflections on the immigration statistics. Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 10(20):27-42.
Mines, R. and D.S. Massey. 1985. Patterns of migration to the U.S. from two Mexican communities. Latin American Research Review 20(2):104-123.
Munoz Garcua, H., et al. 1988. Atlas de migración interna en México. Mexico: Instituto de Geografía.
Peterson, Linda. 1984. Central American Refugee Flows: 1978 to 1983. Washington: U.S. Bureau of the Census. (mimeo)
Prothero, R.M. and M. Chapman. 1985. Circulation in Third World countries. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Raczynsky, D. 1982. Determinantes del exodo rural: Importancia de factores del lugar de origin, Chile, 1965-70. Estudios-corporación de investigaciones economicos para América Latina, Chile 8:61-104.
Roberts, K.D. 1980. Agrarian Structure and Labor Migration in Rural Mexico: The Case of Circular Migration of Undocumented Workers in the U.S. Austin: University of Texas, Institute of Latin American Studies.
Sholoeter, M., M.M. Suárez, and R. Torrealba. 1983. Selective Latin American migration in Venezuela: the case of Sibor. In White Collar Migrants in the Americas and the Caribbean. Ed. by A.F. Marks and H.M.C. Vessuri, 199-234. Leiden: Department of Caribbean Studies, Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology.
Sassone, Susana Maria. 1988. Movimiento de extranjeros en la frontera Argentina. Efectos del tránsito vecinal. Revista Geográfica 94:41-51.
Sibor. In White Collar Migrants in the Americas and the Caribbean. Ed. by A.F. Marks and H.M.C. Vessuri, 199-234. Leiden: Department of Caribbean Studies, Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology.
Suarez, M.M. and R. Torrealba. 1980. Las migraciones internas en Venezuela. Boletin de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe 28:31-57.
[end p. 106]Taylor, J.E. 1987. Undocumented Mexico-U.S. migration and the returns to households in rural Mexico. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 69(3):626-638.
Thomas, Robert N. and Robert L. Wittick. 1984. Longitudinal analysis of internal migration to La Paz, Bolivia. Revista Geográfica 99:57-68.
__________. 1981. Migration flows to La Paz, Bolivia as related to the internal structure of the city: A methodological treatment. Revista Geográfica 94:41-51.
Weil, C. 1983. Migration among landholdings by Bolivian campesinos. Geographical Review 73:182-197.
Urbanization
Armstrong, Warwick and T.G. McGee. 1985. Theatres of Accumulation: Studies in Asian and Latin American urbanization. New York: Methuen.
Bahr, Jurgen and Gunter Mertins. 1980. A model of the social and spatial differentiation of Latin American metropolitan cities. Applied Geography and Development 21:22-45.
__________. 1983. Un modelo de la diferenciación socio-espacial de las metrópolis de América Latina. Revista Geográfica 98:23-29.
Bodini Cruz-Carrera, Hugo. 1985. Génesis y originalidad del Desarrollo urbano chileno. Revista Geográfica 100:19-48.
Bodini Cruz-Carrera, H., J. Sánchez Alvarez, and N. Saenz Villalobos. 1987-1988. Ciudad de Osorno: Uso general del suelo, tendencias y perspectivas. Revista Geográfica de Chile 'Terra Australis' 30:81-93.
Brucher, Wolfgang and Gunter Mertins. 1981. Los barrios de vivienda de los estratos bajos en el modelo ideal de las grandes ciudades Latinoamericanas: El ejemplo de Bogotá. Revista Geográfica 94:7-40.
Butterworth, Douglas and John K. Chance. 1981. Latin American Urbanization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cantón, Victor and Isabel Daróezi. 1986. Aspectos parciales sobre la expansión de la Ciudad de Montevideo. Revista Geográfica 104:105-114.
Cominetti, C., Silvana and Edelmira González G. 1984. Forma de las ciudades. Evolución y Tendencias. Revista Geográfica 100:19-48.
Conway, D. and J. Brown. 1980. Intraurban relocation and structure: Low-income migrants in Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin American Research Review 15(3):95-125.
Cortellezzi de Ragoni, Mónica. 1989. La imagen de una ciudad intermedia: El ejemplo de la ciudad de San Rafael y sus implicaciones. Revista Geográfica 109:5-43.
Deler, J.P. 1988. Barrios populares y organización del espacio de las metropolis andinas. Ensayo de modelización. Bulletin - Institut Francais d'Etudes Andines 17(1):239-250.
Garcia, M. del P. 1980. Boomerang rural-urbano impacto de la planificación urbana sobre los migrantes rurales o impacto de los migrantes rurales sobre el sistema urbano? Ed. by I. Restrepo, 191-228. México: Nueva Imagen.
Gilbert, A.G. 1980. Planning for urban primacy and large cities in Latin America: A critique of the literature. Comparative Urban Research 8(1):105-116.
Gilbert, A., J. Hardoy, and R. Ramirez, eds. 1981. Urbanization in Contemporary Latin America. Chichester.
Gilbert, A. and P.M. Ward. 1984. Community participation in upgrading irregular settlements: The community response. World Development 12:913-922.
Griffin, Ernst and L. Ford. 1980. A model of Latin American city structure. Geographical Review 70:397-422.
Gutman, P. 1982. Problema y perspectivas ambientales de la urbanización en América Latina. Comercio Exterior 32 (12):1304-1314.
Hansis, Richard. 1984. Development, underdevelopment, and Latin American cities. In Proceedings of the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, Yearbook 1984. Ed. by Katherine M. Kvale, 76-91. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University.
Hernández G., Hilario. 1984. Relaciones rango-tamano y etapas de la evolución del sistema urbano chileno (1865-1970). Revista Geográfica 100:9-18.
Howell, David C. 1989. A model of Argentine city structure. Revista Geográfica 109:129-140.
Hunter, John M., Robert N. Thomas, and Scott Whiteford. 1983. Population Growth and Urbanization in Latin America. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
Ingram, G.K. and A. Carrol. 1981. Spatial structure of Latin American cities. Journal of Urban Economics 9:257-273.
Lloyd, P. 1980. The "young towns" of Lima: Aspects of urbanization in Peru. Cambridge.
Mattos, C.A. de. 1981. Crecimiento y concentración espacial en América Latina: Algunas consecuencias. Revista Interamericana de Planificación 15:41-58.
Merino Castro, J.T. 1986. Valparaiso y el destino maritimo de Chile. Revista Chilena de Geopolitica 2(3): 3-12.
Morse, R.M. 1980. Urban development in Latin America: Introduction. Comparative Urban Research VIII:5-13.
Portes, A. 1989. Latin American urbanization during the years of the crisis. Latin American Research Review 24(3):7-44.
Robolledo, Villagra, J. 1987-1988. El impacto de la expansión de la ciudad de Talca en el medio ambientenatural 1900-1984. Revista Geográfica de Chile "Terra Australis" 30:95-123.
Sargent, Charles S. 1982. The Latin American city. In Latin America: An introductory survey. Ed. by B.W. Blouet and O.M. Blouet. New York: John Wiley.
Suárez, Maria Matilde and Milagros Pérez Calcano. 1987. Barquisimeto y su area de influencia en el proceso histórico de la transformación urbana en Venezuela. Revista Geográfica 106:185.
[end p. 107]Symposium: National Space & Urbanization in the Third World. 1982. Latin American Regional Conference. Main Session v.II IGU, 139-192. Rio de Janeiro.
Tata, Robert J. and Maria Inés Campbell. 1985. La variabilidad de los barrios de Caracas. Revista Geográfica 102:81-92.
The Growth of Urban Peripheries in Third World Countries. 1982. Latin American Regional Conference. Main Session v.II IGU, 195-212. Rio de Janeiro.
Urbanization in Latin America. 1980. Entire issue of Revista Geográfica 91-92. 11 articles in Spanish and 1 in Portuguese by Latin Americans and a Canadian.
Williams, Lynden S. 1984. The urban transformation in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. In Latin America: Case Studies. Ed. by Richard G. Boehm and Sent Visser, 199-207. Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
[end p. 108]